Powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina
Known as one of the amber snails, is a subspecies of large, carnivorous land snail, a terrestrial gastropod mollusc in the family Rhytididae found only in New Zealand.
In June 2022, with the approval of the Department of Conservation 30 powelliphanta snails were collected by Sanctuary staff and volunteers from three different sites in the Roding Water Reserve and several sites in the Maitai Valley on land owned by Ngati Koata and translocated to the Sanctuary. This was followed by the collection and translocation of an additional 9 snails found in the Rocks Hut/Coppermine Saddle vicinity.
Powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina is classified by the New Zealand Department of Conservation as being in gradual decline.
Powelliphanta are carnivorous, eating invertebrates, mostly native earthworms. Often restricted to very small areas of moist forest, they are prey to introduced mammalian predators, and many species are threatened or endangered.
Powelliphanta are endemic to New Zealand and their greatest diversity is in the mountains of northwest Nelson and north Westland.
Powelliphanta are carnivorous, eating mostly earthworms or slugs which they suck in like a string of spaghetti. They are nocturnal, and during the day live buried under leaf litter and logs.
Powelliphanta can live for 20 years or more, and are slow to mature, reaching sexual maturity around 5–6 years of age. They are hermaphrodites, having both male and female sex organs. They lay 5 to 10 large (bean-sized) eggs a year, which have a thin pink calcium carbonate shell, like a tiny bird's egg. Eggs take 2–6 months to hatch in lowland species, 12–14 months for high-altitude species.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powelliphanta
This nationally critical bird has had a dramatic past. They were declared extinct twice – once in 1919 and again in 1965, only to be rediscovered in North Canterbury’s Hope Valley in the 1980s. In 1995 they were found in the South Branch of the Hurunui, this population allowed researchers to determine that these birds were a distinct parakeet species, and in fact our rarest. Now, to survive, they need all the help they can get.
The (wild) population of kākāriki karaka is estimated to be just 200 to 300 birds. The species is vulnerable to predation from stoats, rats and possums, especially in the years of a beech mast when an abundance of food increases predator numbers.
Orange-fronted parakeets occur almost exclusively in beech forests, although they are occasionally recorded in subalpine tussock and open, matagouri shrubland. They typically feed at the tops of tall trees, but can also be found amongst low vegetation, or on the ground. Dense, regenerating bush is also popular, especially with juveniles. All parts of the forest are used, including streams for drinking and bathing. If a beech mast has occurred, orange-fronted parakeets will usually be found consuming seeds high in the canopy.
In 2021/2022 104 kākāriki karaka bred at The Isaac Conservation and Wildlife Trust and Orana Wildlife Park in Christchurch were translocated to the Sanctuary. This foundation population in the Sanctuary have been breeding and many fledgings have been sighted.
Breeding
Orange-fronted parakeets can breed in all months, but their main nesting period is between December and April, and incubation peaks in January. Mean clutch size is approximately 7, but a wide range has been recorded (from 1 to 10). Egg-laying is asynchronous, with an interval of 2 days between eggs. Incubation takes 21-26 days, and the nestling period lasts 35-45 days. Females appear to choose the nest site and undertake all preparation, incubation and brooding. The male provides most of the food, especially during incubation. However, females regularly leave the nest to feed briefly with the male. It is suspected that only the female feeds the nestlings for the first 10-14 days, as with other Cyanoramphus species. After this period, both adults feed the nestlings.
Multiple clutches are not uncommon. If the first nesting attempt is unsuccessful, then the pair is likely to nest again once a suitable hollow is found. Some pairs may breed 3 or 4 times in succession when food is plentiful, such as during a beech seeding event. The female may lay another clutch when the first nestlings are approximately 2 weeks old. This leaves the male as the sole provider for both the nestlings and the incubating female.
Nests are usually accessed through knot holes, most often in large branches or in the trunk of a tree. They predominantly nest in red beech (69% of monitored nests on the mainland, n=138) and standing dead trees (20%), but other beech species are also used. Nest bowls can be level with the entrance hollow, or over a metre deep. Recorded nest height varies between 2.5 and 26 metres.
Food
Orange-fronted parakeets consume seeds, flowers, buds and invertebrates (e.g. scale insects and caterpillars). In a mast year, seeds become the dominant item in the diet, and appear to be the principal food for nestlings. Invertebrates appear to play a larger part in the diet of this parakeet species than for yellow-crowned parakeets. This may explain why they are often observed with insectivorous birds, such as yellowheads/mohua.
If you see (or hear) kakariki karaka on your walk in the Sanctuary, please tell our staff when you leave.
Source: Orange-fronted parakeet/kākāriki karaka release | Conservation blog (doc.govt.nz)
Source: Orange-fronted parakeet | Kākāriki karaka | New Zealand Birds Online (nzbirdsonline.org.nz)
Capable of flying at speeds over 100 km/h and catching prey larger than itself, the kārearea (New Zealand falcon) is one of our most spectacular birds.
One of 38 species of falcon worldwide, the New Zealand falcon is endemic to this country.
The falcon has a wide distribution, being found on both the North and South Islands and several offshore islands, including Stewart Island and the sub-antarctic Auckland Islands. Recently, plantation pine forests have been found to be important breeding habitats for falcons. The highest known density of the species is found in Kaingaroa pine forest in the central North Island.
The small dark ‘Bush’ falcons live in forests. They are found in the North Island, mainly south of Hamilton; and NW South Island as far south as Greymouth.
Large paler 'Eastern' falcons live in open dryer habitats east of the Southern Alps but extend from coast to coast in central South Island.
'Southern' falcons are intermediate in size and colouration and live in Fiordland, Stewart Island and the Auckland Islands.
Adult New Zealand falcons measure between 40 cm and 50 cm. Males are smaller than females. Males weigh between 240 g and 350 g, while females weigh between 410 g and 720 g.
The New Zealand falcon is capable of flying at speeds over 100 km/h, and can catch prey larger than itself.
They hunt live prey, mainly by watching from a vantage point and making a fast direct flying attack and either striking or grasping the prey with their feet which are equipped with sharp talons. They kill their prey with a quick powerful bite to the neck.
Their diet includes a range of animals, including insects, mammals and lizards, but consists mainly of birds.
Like all falcons, the New Zealand falcon does not build a nest. Rather, it makes a scrape on the ground, under a rocky outcrop or in an epiphyte in an emergent forest tree into which it lays its eggs.
A typical clutch consists of 2–4 eggs which take about 33 days to hatch.
Nestlings are fed by both parents but the male does most of the hunting with the female guarding close to the nest until the nestlings are close to fledging, which occurs between 31 and 45 days after hatching.
Source:
Tīeke, the South Island saddleback, along with its North Island sister species, is one of the most recognisable bird species in New Zealand due to its bold plumage markings, loud vocalisations and distinctive orange-red wattles. This endemic species is most famous for being saved from extinction in 1964, when 36 birds were translocated from rat-infested Big South Cape Island (off Stewart Island) to nearby Big and Kaimohu Islands. This was the first time that a rescue translocation had prevented a species from becoming extinct anywhere in the world. Descendants from the original translocated populations have since been introduced or reintroduced to numerous other sites (mainly offshore islands) and South Island saddlebacks are no longer at a high risk of extinction. Saddlebacks are in the endemic New Zealand ‘wattlebird’ family (Callaeidae), along with kokako and the extinct huia. The wattlebird family is thought to have close affinities to the stitchbird (Family Notiomystidae).
Voice: a loud chattering call cheet te-te-te-te is uttered throughout the day. Territorial male birds sing male rhythmical song which is characterised by 2-4 introductory chips followed by a series of highly stereotyped and repeated phrases. Over 200 different types of male rhythmical song have been recorded. Male and female birds also give sexually dimorphic quiet calls which are very soft and flute like.
The most recent population estimate for South Island saddlebacks was 1,265 individuals in 2003, but the population is now likely to exceed 2000 birds. Saddlebacks were historically widespread and abundant, but are now locally common only on offshore islands where introduced predators, especially ship rats and stoats, are absent. 40 tīeke were translocated to the Brook Sanctuary in April 2021.
The Nelson Green Gecko is one of our rarest animals. Confined to the Nelson area, this gecko is known to be present on islands in the Abel Tasman but is almost never seen. Like birds, lizards are threatened by animal predators and habitat loss. They are also under threat from the plague or rainbow skink, an Australian skink that is spreading into the South Island. Lizards play a critical role in our ecosystems; they pollinate native plants and disperse native plant seeds through eating fruit.
Without near-complete predator control, these beautiful animals will struggle in the wild. Nelson Green Geckos are active during the day and feed on moths and other insects which they find in the open country under kanuka or manuka scrub.
Young geckos are born live, which is unique to New Zealand geckos! They usually come as twins and are usually born in autumn or early winter. Nelson Green Geckos have really “sticky” feet which allow them to walk anywhere.
Keep an ear out for the Nelson Green Gecko - they have one of the loudest “barks” in the gecko world, they are active during the day, seeking insects to feed on.
The Nelson Green Gecko have been seen in the Sanctuary (but not often), keep your eyes and ears open for them!
Small tree bearing many flat even green leathery oval leaves that are paler underneath. Leaves 4-10cm long by 2-5cm wide. Flowers dark purple, star-shapeed. Fruit 12mm wide, a hard capsule which splits into three to show black seeds in a sticky pith.
There are several recorded uses of kōhūhū by Māori. The resin and oils extracted from the leaves were used for their scent and were often mixed with ingredients sourced from other native trees in order to produce an oil of variable composition. The resin was obtained by making cuts in the bark of the tree and the leaves were crushed and mixed with other oils. The oil was used to scent little pouches or a dead bird skin, often worn around the neck. The oil was also used to scent houses and mats of people of high rank.
In addition, kōhūhū was also used for medicinal purposes by Māori. The resin was mixed with other gums and chewed as a cure for bad breath and sores in the mouth. Parts of the plants were used as topical treatment for relief of the symptoms of skin diseases. Crushed leaves were also used as a poultice for ulcers. The crushed bark was soaked in water and the resulting mixture used to treat breast or chest ailments, and the remaining liquid could be taken orally. It was used, together with flax root, to make a brew used to treat fever, bleeding and bruising. Validating its traditional uses as a medicine, a 2010 study indicated that kōhūhū does indeed possess some antimicrobial properties.
Lastly, the branches of kōhūhū were used in important Māori life ceremonies, such as baptisms, and are still used for welcoming visitors to a marae. Two of its common names, tāwhiri (“to wave to”) and rautāwhiri (“to wave a leaf”) reflect this.
Rimu is a slow-growing tree, eventually attaining a height of up to 50m, although most surviving large trees are 20 to 35 m tall. It typically appears as an emergent from mixed broadleaf temperate rainforest, although there are almost pure stands (especially on the west coast of the South Island). There are historical accounts of exceptionally tall trees, 61 m, from dense forest near National Park in the central North Island, now destroyed. Its lifespan is approximately 800 to 900 years. The straight trunk of the rimu is generally 1.5 m in diameter, but may be larger in old or very tall specimens.
Māori originally used the resinous heartwood of rimu (called māpara or kāpara) for wooden items such as heru (combs) and fernroot beaters. Historically, rimu and other native trees such as kauri, matai and totara were the main sources of wood for New Zealand, including furniture and house construction. However, many of New Zealand's original stands of rimu have been destroyed, and recent government policies forbid the felling of rimu in public forests, though allowing limited logging on private land. Pinus radiata has now replaced rimu in most industries, although rimu remains popular for the production of high quality wooden furniture. There is also limited recovery of stump and root wood, from trees felled many years before, for use in making bowls and other wood turned objects.
The inner bark can also be used to treat burns and cuts.
Peraxilla tetrapetala, or red mistletoe, is a parasitic plant in the family Loranthaceae, endemic to New Zealand and found on both the North and South Islands. The Māori names for the plant are pikirangi, pirirangi and roeroe. Fleshy shrub to 3m wide growing on inner branches of beech trees with glossy green fleshy paired leaves and masses of red tubular flowers. Leaves to 2.5cm long, blistered, diamond shaped. Flowers to 4cm long. Fallen petals litter forest floor under plants. Fruit green.
Coastal to montane. A hemiparasite whose main hosts are mountain beech (N. solandri var. cliffortioides), black beech (Nothofagus solandri var. solandri), red beech (N. fusca), and silver beech (N. menziesii).
A wide variety of threats are now acknowledged as working in unison to cause the national decline of this and allied leafy mistletoes species. The most obvious threat seems to be brush tailed possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), which heavily browse mistletoes, to such an extent that they are held as the primary cause for the loss of the beech mistletoes from large parts of the countries beech forest.
October to January
Kiekie (Freycinetia banksii) is a densely branched, brittle, woody climber native to New Zealand. It is a member of the screwpalm family Pandanaceae.
Kiekie has numerous cane-like stems up to 40 mm in diameter, which freely produce aerial roots. It climbs tree trunks, or forms dense tangles on the forest floor. Its stems and leaves are a dominant feature in many areas of New Zealand forest, the stems eventually reaching up to 30 m long. The leaves are long and slender, 60–90 cm long and 2-2.5 cm broad.
The sweet-tasting fruits and the succulent flower bracts (tāwhara) were a delicacy of the Māori. These were often gathered by using a forked stick. The leaves widely for plaiting and weaving, although the broader leaves of New Zealand flax were preferred because they provided more material. Kiekie was preferred for closely woven items, such as kete pūtea and kete pure. Items woven included mats and temporary baskets for holding food. The aerial roots were gathered to use as a binding material for implements and for making fish traps and sandals.
Fuchsia excorticata, commonly known as tree fuchsia, New Zealand fuchsia and by its Māori name kōtukutuku, is a New Zealand native tree belonging to the family Onagraceae. It is commonly found throughout New Zealand and as far south as the Auckland Islands. It grows from sea level up to about 1,000 m (3,300 ft), particularly alongside creeks and rivers. It is easily recognised in its native environment by the characteristic appearance of its bark, which peels spontaneously, hanging in red papery strips to show a pale bark underneath. Its scientific name, excorticata, reflects this distinctive property.
Fuchsia excorticata is the largest member of the genus Fuchsia, growing to a height of 15 m (50 ft). It is unusual among New Zealand trees in being deciduous in the southern parts of its range. The introduction of the common brushtail possum to New Zealand precipitated a serious decline in this species, particularly where large concentrations of the possum are present. F. excorticata appears to be one of the possum's preferred food sources, and they will browse individual trees to the point of defoliation after which the trees will die. The small dark purple berry is sweet and juicy. It was favoured by Māori who, unusually, gave the fruit its own name of kōnini; it was also eaten by European settlers in jams and puddings.
The nīkau palm is the only palm species endemic to mainland New Zealand. Its natural range is coastal and lowland forest on the North Island, and on the South Island as far south as Okarito (43°20′S) in the west and Banks Peninsula (43°5′S) in the east. It also occurs on Chatham Island and Pitt Island/Rangiauria to the south-east of New Zealand, where it is the world's southernmost palm at 44° 18'S latitude.
Nīkau grow up to 15 m tall, with a stout, green trunk which bears grey-green leaf scars. The trunk is topped by a smooth, bulging crownshaft up to 1 m long. The fronds are up to 3 m long, and the closely set, sometimes overlapping leaflets are up to 1m long. Nīkau produce flowers between November and April, and fruit ripens from February to November, taking almost a year to fully ripen. These are a preferred food of the kererū (native pigeon).
Māori found many uses for nīkau. The bases of the inner leaves and the young flower clusters were eaten raw or cooked. Food was wrapped in the leaves for cooking, and the old fibrous leaves were used for kete, floor mats, and waterproof thatch for buildings. Nīkau were a versatile material to use in weaving, as the fibres could be used raw without any need for processing.
Pterostylis is a genus of about 300 species in the orchid family, Orchidaceae. Commonly called greenhood orchids, they are terrestrial, deciduous, perennial, tuberous, herbs found in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia and one Indonesian island. The flowers are mostly green, sometimes with brown, reddish or white stripes, and are distinguished from other orchids by their unusual flower structures and pollination mechanism.
About 36 different types of greenhood orchids emerge from the leaf-litter of New Zealand's forests and scrublands, but few are common and most are little known even to keen botanists. Some have been reclassified in recent years so their genus name may have changed from Pterostylis, but they are still greenhood orchids.
A number of greenhood orchids (Pterostylis species) flourish on forest floors. The largest are conspicuous in spring and early summer, when they produce a hooded flower. The flowers are mostly green, but may have pink and white markings.
Greenhood orchids die back after they have seeded so it takes an observant eye to spot their reappearance each year. Underground, food is stored in a tuber which persists throughout the year with the first leaf growing from it and as many as six leaves up the stem before the flower appears. Older clumps spread out from the original tuber with a dozen or more stems creating a spectacular little grove.
Kawakawa (Piper excelsum) is found throughout the North Island, and as far south as Okarito on the West Coast, and Banks Peninsula on the east coast of the South Island. The leaves are often covered with holes caused by the caterpillar of the kawakawa looper moth (Cleora scriptaria). The name kawakawa comes from Te Reo Māori, where it refers to the bitter taste of the leaves, from kawa or bitter.
Kawakawa is a traditional medicinal plant for Māori. The sweet edible yellow berries (most often found in summer on female trees) of the plant were eaten as a diuretic. It also is important in cultural contexts: host people of a marae wave leaves of kawakawa to welcome guests. At a tangi, both hosts and guests may wear wreaths of kawakawa on the head as a sign of mourning.
The huhu beetle (Prionoplus reticularis) is a longhorn beetle endemic to New Zealand. It is the heaviest beetle found in New Zealand, the beetles are nocturnal and are attracted by the lights.
To Māori, the larval form is known as huhu (also tunga haere, tunga rākau) with the adult stage known as pepe-te-muimui. However, the larval and adult forms are commonly referred to as the huhu grub and huhu beetle, respectively.
As the huhu larva reaches maturity it ceases to bore in wood and casts its skin. This still edible stage is known in Maori as tataka. It then develops wings and legs, and while it is still white, it is known as pepe. Finally, it emerges and flies off to reproduce and is known as tunga rere.
Huhu grubs are edible to humans, with a long history of indigenous consumption, and their flavour has been described as like buttery chicken or peanut butter. There are different names in Māori for grubs at different stages of development, for example young larvae still actively feeding on timber are called tunga haere or tunga rākau, while full grown grubs which have ceased to feed and are preparing to pupate are called tataka and are the most prized (because there is no undigested wood pulp inside of them at this point). Huhu grubs may be consumed either raw or traditionally cooked in a hāngi, and are an especially rich source of fat in the New Zealand wilderness.
Tree wētā are wētā in the genus Hemideina of the family Anostostomatidae. The genus is endemic to New Zealand; there are seven species within the genus Hemideina, found throughout the country except lowland Otago and Southland.
Tree wētā are commonly encountered in forests and suburban gardens throughout most of New Zealand. They are up to 40 mm long and most commonly live in holes in trees formed by beetle and moth larvae or where rot has set in after a twig has broken off. The hole, called a gallery, is maintained by the wētā and any growth of the bark surrounding the opening is chewed away. They readily occupy a preformed gallery in a piece of wood (a "wētā hotel") and can be kept in a suburban garden as pets. A gallery might house a harem of up to 10 adult females and one male.
Tree wētā are nocturnal and arboreal, hiding in hollow tree branches during the day and feeding at night. Their diet consists of leaves, flowers, fruit and small insects.Males have larger heads and stronger jaws than females, though both sexes will stridulate (make a noise by rubbing body parts together) and bite when threatened.
The Sanctuary features a number of 'wētā hotels' - look out for them on your walk, open the hotel doors to see the wētā inside!
Paranephrops is a genus of freshwater crayfish found only in New Zealand. They are known by the English common names freshwater crayfish and kōura. The two species are the northern koura, Paranephrops planifrons, found mainly in the North Island, but also in Marlborough, Nelson, and the West Coast of the South Island, and the southern koura, Paranephrops zealandicus, found only in the eastern and southern of the South Island and on Stewart Island/Rakiura. Both species are a traditional food for Māori.
Koura occupy freshwater lakes, streams, rivers, and swamps, in mud or gravel substrates. Koura are nocturnal, moving into shallower water at night and deeper water column during the day. During daytime, they find shelter under rocks, debris such as cans and bottles, and vegetation. In soft sediments they may also excavate burrows or fan shaped depressions. In streams, koura take cover on the bottom beneath fallen leaf litter, fallen logs, and tree roots and undercut banks. Tree fern roots that project into the stream are thought to provide excellent cover for juveniles.
The female carries 20–200 eggs under the side flaps of her abdomen, where they take 3–4 months to hatch. Once hatched, juvenile koura cling to their mother's abdomen using their pincers to attach until they have reached a length of 4–10 mm (0.16–0.39 in). At this stage, they resemble adult koura in appearance, having undergone two moults.
The 60 species of cave wētā or tokoriro are only very distant relatives of the other types of wētā, being classified in several genera of subfamily Macropathinae in family Rhaphidophoridae.
They have extra-long antennae, and may have long, slender legs and a passive demeanour. Although they have no hearing organs on their front legs like species of Hemideina and Deinacrida, some (such as Talitropsis) are very sensitive to ground vibrations sensed through pads on their feet. Specialised hairs on the cerci and organs on the antennae are also sensitive to low-frequency vibrations in the air.
Although wētā had native predators in the form of birds (especially the weka and kiwi), reptiles, and bats before the arrival of humans, introduced species such as cats, hedgehogs, rats (including kiore) and mustelids have caused a sharp increase in the rate of predation. They are also vulnerable to habitat destruction caused by humans and modification of their habitat caused by introduced browsers. New Zealand's Department of Conservation considers 16 of the 70 species at risk. Programmes to prevent extinctions have been implemented since the 1970s.
New Zealand has over 30 species of native slug, all of which are leaf-veined. Introduced slugs, like the ones you’ll find eating your garden veggies, don’t have the leaf-vein patterning, and instead might be one solid colour or spotted. In addition, native leaf-veined slugs have only one pair of tentacles – unlike introduced species of slugs, which have two.
You’d be lucky to come across one of these natives though, as they’re nocturnal and spent most of the day hiding under heavy things like damp logs. If you do find one in your garden don’t worry, they won’t snack on your prized cabbages. Leaf-veined slugs prefer to dine on algae and fungus that live on the surface of the leaf, rather than the leaf itself.
Titiwai - NZ glowworms are the larvae (maggots) of a special kind of fly known as a fungus gnat. Fungus gnats look rather like mosquitoes, and most feed on mushrooms and other fungi. However, a small group of fungus gnats are carnivores, and the worm-like larvae of these species use their glowing lights to attract small flying insects into a snare of sticky threads. New Zealand has over 300 species of fungus gnat but only one - Arachnocampa luminosa - that produces light.
Titiwai (NZ glowworms) are widespread in both the North and the South Island of New Zealand although populations generally occur in cave systems and in native bush where prey species are available and humidity is high. Some sites have become popular destinations for tourists wanting to see the glowworms; these include the caves in Waitomo, Waipu, and Te Anau, and also in areas of native vegetation such as the Brook Waimārama Sanctuary.
Here at the Brook Waimārama Sanctuary we operate glowworm tours after dark during the winter months.
The Opilionids (or Harvestmen) are an order of arachnids. They are related to spiders, but are not spiders - they differ in important ways:
* Spiders have two distinct body parts, a cephalothorax and an abdomen. Harvestmen have two fused body parts.
* Spiders have 6-8 eyes. Harvestmen have only two eyes.
* Spiders can produce venom. Harvestmen can't produce venom.
* Spiders have hollow chelicera that are used like fangs to 'bite' and deliver venom. Harvestmen have solid chelicera that are used like hands to grab and hold food.
* Spiders have silk glands and build webs. Harvestmen have no silk glands and no webs.
* Spiders, when threatened will either run away or use their venom to defend themselves. Harvestmen will give off a horrible smell, play dead, or lose one of its legs.
Opilionids are widely distributed throughout the world living everywhere except Antarctica; NZ has very archaic and unusual forms. Many of these species are rarely seen and remain unknown to science.
Source:
https://www.nznaturephotos.co.nz/p638753185
https://adventure360.co.nz/blog/2021-10-05-harvestmen-spider/
Stenoperla is a genus of insect in the family Eustheniidae containing a number of species of stonefly all endemic to New Zealand.
Many stonefly species spend much of their life as larvae in freshwater streams. When fully grown they develop into winged adults and take flight in order to mate. Some species in the south of New Zealand have very small wings and are flightless. These live in tussocklands and under mountain stones.
Stonefly larvae is generally found among rough gravel or larger stones in well-oxygenated water, avoiding still or back water areas. Stoneflies are used as indicators of water quality because of their preference for clean, cool water. Adult stoneflies spend most of their time hiding in the vegetation alongside streams, but they fly at dusk.
While many aquatic insects hibernate across the colder months, stoneflies continue to feed and move about the stream bed, often becoming dislodged and victims of the drift. Stoneflies have a dependency on highly oxygenated water, thus a low tolerance of water pollution and so the presence of stoneflies in your local stream is an indicator of good water quality. Stoneflies can remain in their nymphal phase for up to four years.
Stick insects belong to the insect order Phasmatodea – the name comes from the Greek word ‘phasm’, meaning phantom. The order includes about 3,000 species worldwide, with most diversity around the tropics.
Stick insects are surprisingly common in New Zealand and can be found from coastal vegetation to the high-alpine zone, although many species are poorly known because of their cryptic appearance and nocturnal habits. New Zealand’s temperate climate supports more than 20 described species of stick insect.
Stick insects look and behave like twigs or leaves to avoid being eaten. Also known as walking sticks, they come in a wide range of colours, textures and sizes, although they are all well disguised in their natural habitat. Their main predators are birds that hunt by sight. As a result of natural selection, and pressure from birds and other hunters, stick insects have evolved a suite of extraordinary features, structures and behaviours.
During the day most stick insects sit where they are least visible. Although some eat, they generally remain still, move very slowly, or sway like leaves in the wind. At dusk and at night they are more active, seeking out their preferred leaves to eat. Adults of the small spiny stick insect (genus Micrarchus) often move down to the base of the ribbonwood trees they feed on. They hide among the fallen twigs and leaves, while green nymphs of this species stay among the foliage.
New Zealand’s largest stick insect, Argosarchus horridus, often settles where there are fewest leaves but lots of twigs in the trees it feeds on. Females can be up to 20 centimetres long. Adults of the all-female variable stick insect (genus Acanthoxyla) lie along twigs where foliage is most dense. Species of the alpine genus Niveaphasma live among the tangled branches of Muehlenbeckia species.
Different stick insect species prefer particular plants. The bristly stick insect (Argosarchus horridus) eats ramarama and ribbonwood. Niveaphasma eat Muehlenbeckia. Stick insects of the genus Clitarchus eat kānuka and mānuka. Endemic stick insects (those unique to New Zealand) will eat a range of plants, either native (pōhutukawa, rātā) or not (blackberry, raspberry). Acanthoxyla stick insects eat a range of native plants, but are unusually fond of the exotic macrocarpa and cedar trees commonly found in urban areas.
There is scattered information on the status of and knowledge about stick insects in Māori tradition. Names include rō, whe and wairaka. In some traditions they were considered to be relatives of the mantis. If either of these landed on a woman it signified she was pregnant, and which insect it was indicated the child’s sex. Some sayings claim that gardens are unsuitable where there are stick insects. In other sayings, when they drop onto you from a forest tree it is a sign that you have entered a sacred site.
In legend, before creating people, the god Tāne Mahuta fathered (with Punga) the trees, birds and insects of the forest. It was Tāne who pushed apart the sky (Ranginui) and earth (Papatūānuku) so there was light, allowing the forest inhabitants to see, breath and move. The insects are considered to be the children or embodiment of Tāne and deserving of respect.
In the story of Rātā, who cut down a tree to build a canoe without first paying respect to Tāne, the insects gathered each chip of wood and leaf and returned them to their proper place so the tree was whole again.
The New Zealand tomtit looks similar to a robin. They are a small bird with a large head, a short bill and tail, and live in forest and scrub.
There are five subspecies of tomtit (Petroica macrocephala), each restricted to their own specific island or island group: North Island, South Island, the Snares Islands, the Chatham Islands and the Auckland Islands.
The tomtit is mostly an insectivore, feeding on small invertebrates, such as beetles, caterpillars, spiders, moths, wētā, earthworms, and flies. Fruit is taken during the winter and autumn. Most subspecies feed in vegetation, waiting on a perch and watching for prey. Insects are also gleaned from branches and leaves.
The Māori name of the North Island tomtit is miromiro, while the South Island tomtit is known as ngirungiru.
Facts
Voice: both sexes make short “seet”, “zet” or “swee” contact calls throughout the year, most often given singularly, but up to five in quick succession. Full song is given by adult males throughout the year, except during the moult period (February-April). The song has been rendered as “ti-oly-oly-oly-ho”, and lasts 2-3 seconds. Also, give a downscale call, a series of ‘chuck’ calls, descending in tone, and which start in rapid succession and finish slowly. Downscales are sometimes given after a neighbour has given such a call, and also in response to such calls by robins.
The South Island robin is a familiar bird to those who venture into the South Island back-country. It occurs in forest and scrub habitats, where it spends much time foraging on the ground, and can be recognised by its erect stance and relatively long legs. It is a territorial species, males in particular inhabiting the same patch of forest throughout their lives. Males are great songsters, particularly bachelors, singing loudly and often for many minutes at a time. Where robins are regularly exposed to people, such as along public walking tracks, they become quite confident, often approaching to within a metre of a person sitting quietly. Juveniles will sometimes stand on a person’s boot.
Identification
The adult male South Island robin is dark grey-black over the head, neck, mantle and upper chest; the flight feathers and tail are brownish-black, and the lower chest and belly white to yellowish white with a sharp demarcation between black and white on chest. Adult females are light to dark grey over the upper body. They further differ from males in the white chest-belly area being smaller and not having such a distinct demarcation between grey and white feathering. Juveniles are similar to females, but often with a smaller or no white patch on the underparts. Adults of both sexes are able to expose a small white spot of feathers above the base of the beak during intraspecific and interspecific interactions.
Voice: South Island robins have four recognisable vocalisations. Fullsong is a series of phrases given loudly by males only, generally from a high perch. Robins can be heard giving fullsong year round, but particularly during the breeding season. It is used to indicate territorial occupancy and to attract a mate – bachelors spend much more time singing than paired males. Subsong is similar to fullsong but given at much less volume, is given by both sexes, and most frequently during the moult. The downscale is a series of very loud ‘chuck’ calls, descending in tone, and which start in rapid succession and finish slowly. The call lasts 3-4 seconds, is given by both sexes, and is most frequently heard during the non-breeding season (January-June). The fourth vocalisation type is the ‘chuck’, which is given as single notes (contact calls) or in rapid succession and loudly (as an alarm call) when a predator is nearby.
Similar species: there are no species that are similar to the robin in the South Island or Stewart Island. Robins are much larger and lack the white wing-bars of tomtits.
The ruru (morepork) is a small, dark, forest-dwelling owl. Found in both native and plantation forests, its distinctive “more-pork” call is commonly heard at night in many urban parks and well-vegetated suburbs. Ruru are relatively common throughout much of New Zealand but are sparse through the eastern and central South Island. Their diet consists of insects, small mammals and birds, which it hunts at night.
Identification
The ruru is a small, compact, dark-brown owl. Its striking yellow to yellowish-green eyes are set into two facial disks either side of a small sharply hooked bill. The back feathers are dark-brown spotted sparsely with off-white. The breast is dark-brown variably streaked with cream and brown through to rufous. The legs are feathered legs down to the yellow feet.
Voice: Calls are given almost exclusively at night. The onomatopoeic ‘more-pork’ call is the most characteristic and often heard call. They also utter a repetitive ‘quork-quork’, a rising ‘quee’ call often confused with kiwi, and a yelping call similar to the short call of little owl.
Similar species: little owls are the only other small species of owl in New Zealand. They are paler than morepork, more grey-brown than dark-brown, and heavily spotted and streaked with cream. They are found only in open habitats in South Island, with minimal range overlap with morepork. The rising ‘quee’ call is often mistaken for a kiwi call.
Bellbirds are the most widespread and familiar honeyeater in the South Island, and are also common over much of the North Island. Their song is a welcome sound in mainland forests that otherwise may have little native bird song. Although they have a brush-like tongue which is used to reach deeply into flowers to reach nectar, bellbirds also feed on fruits and insects. In feeding on nectar they play an important ecological role in pollinating the flowers of many native trees and shrubs. Subsequently, when feeding on the fruits that result from this pollination they have a role in dispersing the seeds, and so they assist in the regeneration of the forest in at least two ways.
Identification
Bellbirds are green with a short, curved bill, slightly forked tail, and noisy whirring, fast and direct flight. Adult males are olive green, slightly paler on the underparts, with a head tinted purple; wings and tail blackish. Female are browner with narrow white-yellow stripe across the cheek from the base of the bill, and bluish gloss on top of head. Adults of both sexes have wine-red eyes. Juveniles are similar to females, but with yellowish cheek stripe, brown eyes and lacking the bluish gloss on the head.
Voice: song varies regionally but is ringing notes without grunts or wheezes. Alarm call a rapidly repeated harsh “yeng,”. The famous bell notes noted by Sir Joseph Banks in Queen Charlotte Sound on James Cook first voyage to New Zealand are only heard when many birds are present at once, mostly at dawn and dusk in places of high bellbird density with few other bird species.
Similar species: greenfinch is smaller with a large, pale, conical bill and no purple or blue on the head. Tui is very different in appearance but has similar song that can be distinguished (usually) by the inclusion of additional less musical notes than bellbird, e.g. grunts, clicks and wheezes.
The silvereye colonised New Zealand from Australia in the 1850s, and is now one of New Zealand’s most abundant and widespread bird species. It is found throughout New Zealand and its offshore and outlying islands, occurring in most vegetated habitats, including suburban gardens, farmland, orchards, woodlands and forests. Silvereyes are small songbirds that are easily recognised by their conspicuous white eye-ring; their plumage is mainly olive-green above and cream below. It is an active, mobile species that moves about frequently, including making sea crossings.
Identification
The silvereye is a common small songbird immediately recognisable by its distinctive white eye-ring. It has olive-green plumage on the head, lower back and upper tail, and mid-grey on the hindneck, sides of neck and upper back. The upper wings are mostly dark olive green, with narrow lines of yellowish green, and the tail is dark olive green. The underparts are whitish-cream on the throat and upper breast, creamy grey on the belly and undertail, the flanks are pinkish-buff, the thighs are white, and the underside of the wings creamy-white. The dark brownish-black bill is fine, short and sharply pointed. The iris is dark reddish-brown, and the legs and feet pale brown. The sexes are alike. Juveniles have similar colouring to adults but have a narrower and duller white eye-ring.
Voice: a range of clear often high-pitched and melodious calls including warbles, and trills, often repeated, used in a wide variety of contexts. The main contact is a plaintive creee, and the flight call a shorter cli-cli, with many birds calling at once. Full song is a quiet, long liquid warble, similar to the song of the dunnock.
Similar species: bellbird is of similar build but twice the size, lacks the white-eye ring and is olive-green on underparts as well as upperparts.
Distribution and habitat
Silvereyes occur throughout New Zealand from sea level up to about 1,200 m altitude, in urban areas, farmlands, orchards and all indigenous and exotic forests and scrublands, including scrubby edges of wetlands. They are less common in open grassland areas of Otago. Silvereyes are resident on Stewart, Great Barrier, Kermadec, Chatham, Snares, Antipodes, Auckland and Campbell Islands. Although silvereyes are resident on or regularly visit all vegetated offshore islands, they are only irregularly or seasonally present on islands with high-densities of bellbirds and other passerines, including Three Kings, Poor Knights, Little Barrier and Kapiti Islands.
Population
Silvereyes are common and widespread, often in large flocks in winter.
Ecological and economic impacts
Silvereyes damage ripening fruit in orchards, including grapes, apricots, cherries and apples. Vineyards are often covered to protect ripening grapes from bird damage, including from silvereyes. On the positive side of the ledger, silvereyes eat aphids (hence the alternative name ‘blight bird’), and are a major predator of overwintering codling moth caterpillars. They may spread weed seeds through ingestion of small fruits and they are known to spread seeds of native trees and shrubs, including kahikatea and coprosmas. Silvereyes assist with pollination of some tree species such as kowhai and fuchsia when feeding on nectar. They have no recognised impacts on native bird species.
Breeding
Pairs are monogamous and territorial when breeding, nesting between August-September and February, peaking in September – November in most localities. Nests are in the outermost branches of trees, shrubs and treeferns, mostly more than 8 metres above the ground, and are a well-built, delicate cup woven into small branches and comprising moss, lichen, small fine twigs, hair, spider web and thistledown. One or both sexes build nests. Two or three clutches may be raised during a season, with 2-4 eggs per clutch (typically 3). Eggs are pale blue and laid at 24 hour intervals. Incubation is shared by the sexes and takes 10-12 days. Young are blind and naked when hatched apart from two tiny tufts of down on the head. Their eyes open after 4 days, they are well-feathered 10 days after hatching, and fledge at 9-11 days-old. Both sexes feed fledglings.
Behaviour and ecology
A gregarious species, silvereyes are well known for flocking especially in winter. They are a mobile species that forages actively for food in parklands, woodlands, suburban gardens, forests and scrublands. Aggressive interactions are common within flocks, with a dominant bird performing rapid wing fluttering and short aggressive chases of other birds. Some local seasonal movement and even migration within the country may occur; for example, a bird banded in Marlborough was recovered in Wellington.
Food
Silvereyes are omnivorous and eat a range of small insects such as aphids, caterpillars and flies, also spiders, gleaned from shrubs and trees. They also feed on a range of small and large fruits including small berries and ripening fruit including grapes, cherries, apples, pears, figs, apricots and peaches. Silvereyes eagerly feed on nectar of native and exotic plants including kowhai, fuchsia, eucalypts and bottlebrushes. They visit bird feeders more than any other species in New Zealand voraciously feeding on fat and lard, especially in winter.
The fantail is one of New Zealand’s best known birds, with its distinctive fanned tail and loud song, and particularly because it often approaches within a metre or two of people. Its wide distribution and habitat preferences, including frequenting well-treed urban parks and gardens, means that most people encounter fantails occasionally. They can be quite confiding, continuing to nest build or visit their nestlings with food when people watch quietly. There are two colour forms or ‘morphs’ of fantail, with the more common pied morph occurring throughout its range, and the black morph comprising up to 5% of the South Island population, and occasionally occurring in the North Island.
Identification
The New Zealand fantail occurs in two colour morphs: pied and black. The adult pied fantail has a greyish head, prominent white eyebrows, brown back and rump, cinnamon breast and belly, white and black bands across the upper breast, and a long black and white tail. Juvenile pied fantails are of mainly brown tones over the head and body, lack the striking white eyebrows and chest bands, and are more rufous on the breast, eyebrows and on the tips of the primary coverts than adults. Black fantails are mainly black, with black-brown over the rump, belly and flight feathers, and occasionally have a white spot over each ear. Note that black morph fantails never have white on their tail feathers. Juvenile black fantails tend to be more dark brown than black. Black fantails are rare in the North Island, and make up less than 5% of individuals across the South Island. The main difference between the subspecies is the amount of white in the tail (North Island fantail with slightly greyish inner webs, South Island pied morph white inner webs, Chatham Island fantail with more extensive white). Fantails are occasionally seen without tails!
Voice: fantails are quite vocal, except when it is particularly cold. They regularly give ‘cheep’ calls in a number of situations, such as when foraging or alarmed. The species’ distinctive song has been described as “a chattering tweeta-tweeta-tweeta…. of regular rhythm”, and of high pitch. It can be heard throughout the year, particularly during the breeding season (August-March), but least of all during cold, wet days of winter.
Similar species: the New Zealand fantail is the only resident fantail in New Zealand and so is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The related willie wagtail has reached New Zealand on one occasion.
Distribution and habitat
Fantails occur widely from Northland to Stewart Island, and on some islands of the Chathams group (Chatham, Pitt, Rangatira, Mangere, Little Mangere). They colonised the Snares group during 1977-81, but disappeared during a severe storm in 2001.
The widespread distribution of the fantail can be attributed to its utilisation of a wide variety of habitats, including both native and exotic forest and shrubland habitats. It is widespread in extensive native forest blocks, small forest patches, scrubland, exotic plantations, farm shelterbelts, orchards, and well-treed suburban parks and gardens.
Population
The New Zealand fantail is widespread and can be locally common, especially following the breeding season when small flocks form. However, local populations and those on small islands can disappear or reduce in numbers dramatically during prolonged cold and wet weather. In line with population declines in severe weather, fantails tend to be scarce or non-existent in open country that experiences extreme frosts and snow, such as inland Marlborough and central Otago. In suitable habitat, populations usually recover within a year or two due to the species’ high breeding productivity and extensive juvenile dispersal.
Threats and conservation
The fantail is one of the few native forest bird species that has coped reasonably well with the extensive conversion of lowland native forest to farmland. However, nesting adults, eggs and chicks are not immune from being preyed upon by introduced mammalian pests, particularly by ship rats.
Breeding
The timing of fantail breeding varies with location and weather conditions. Those at southern localities (Southland) and offshore islands (Chathams) have shorter breeding seasons than those further north. The nest is constructed of fine materials (mosses, dried rotten wood fibres, hair, dried grasses, fern scales) tightly woven with cobwebs. Most nests are sheltered from above by foliage, and often include a ‘tail’ of material below the base of the nest. Two to five eggs are laid, with both adults taking turns on the nest through the approximately 14-day incubation period. Likewise, both male and female brood and feed the young during the approximately 14-day nestling period. Recent fledglings have short tails and often remain together, often perched side by side. The male looks after the fledglings when the female starts building the next nest. One monitored pair reared five broods in a season, totalling 15 fledglings.
Behaviour and ecology
During the breeding season fantails are territorial, chasing interlopers away with harsh chattering calls. While adults remain on or near their territories in the non-breeding season, juveniles occasionally gather in loose flocks where prey is readily available. During fine, warm weather fantails forage from the understorey to the canopy, and even above the canopy. They can often be found associating with flocks of other forest species, such as brown creepers, whiteheads and silvereyes, perching below ready to intercept any prey that falls. They have a strong association with foraging saddlebacks wherever the two species co-occur. When searching for prey in foliage, fantails often flick their wings and fan their tails, presumably to frighten hidden prey into movement so that they can be detected. During cold spells in winter they can be seen moving about on the ground in search of food. Given their small size and vulnerability to cold weather, it is not surprising that they occasionally roost communally, perched tightly together in a sheltered cavity, including inside sheds and garages.
Food
Fantails mainly eat small invertebrates, such as moths, flies, beetles and spiders. Large prey is subdued by being held in a foot against a perch and then being repeatedly pecked. Indigestible portions, such as wings, are often discarded before the remainder is eaten. Small fruit are sometimes eaten.
This large and distinctively-coloured pigeon is a familiar sight to many New Zealanders. This is because the New Zealand pigeon (or kereru) has a widespread distribution through the country, being present in extensive tracts of native forest, and rural and urban habitats, including most cities. As well as allowing close approach, it often roosts conspicuously, such as on powerlines or on the tops of trees. The distinctive sound of its wing beats in flight also draws attention. Kereru also frequently feature on works of art, such as paintings and sculptures. However, even though it is widespread, like many forest birds its abundance is severely compromised by introduced mammals, particularly possums, stoats and ship rats. Only where these pests are not present (predator-free islands) or are controlled to low levels do kereru populations thrive.
Identification
Although there is some individual variation, in general the upper parts of adult kereru are blue-green, with a purple-bronze iridescence on the neck, mantle and coverts of the wings. The underparts are white with a sharp demarcation between the white and blue-green on the upper breast. The bill colouration is quite variable, from uniformly red, but often having a paler red or even orangey tip, and feet and eyes crimson. Fledglings and juveniles have duller plumage, and often the white chest is smudgy white-grey, and the demarcation between dark and white feathering is ragged and may have a narrow border of cinnamon wash over the upper white feathers.
Voice: kereru are generally silent except for occasional ‘oos’. Brief, moderate volume ‘oos’ are given when alarmed, such as a harrier flying close by, and longer, low volume ‘oooooos’, with a rising tone towards the end given as contact calls, often repeated several times.
There is no other species in New Zealand that looks similar to the New Zealand pigeon, apart from the Chatham Island pigeon, which is confined to the Chatham Islands.
Distribution
Kereru are widespread through the country from Northland to Stewart Island, and on some offshore islands that have suitable forest / shrubland habitats.
Habitat
Kereru inhabit a wide variety of forest types: podocarp-broadleaf forest, beech forest, second growth native forest regenerating after logging, small forest remnants, and exotic plantations (especially those with an understorey and/or stream-sides of native shrubs and trees). They also occur in farmland shelterbelts, urban parks, and rural and suburban gardens.
Population
Kereru are widespread through the country, and are seasonally common at some locations where they gather in moderate-sized feeding flocks (20-50 birds, and rarely over 100).
Threats and conservation
Although a major issue for conservation of the kereru in the early 1900s, habitat loss probably has little impact on regional populations today. The main threat to kereru is predation by introduced mammalian predators, particularly feral cats, possums, stoats and ship rats, especially when nesting. Other mortality factors include collisions with fast moving vehicles, overhead power and telephone wires and windows, electrocution when perched on some power poles, and illegal hunting. Where pest populations are removed (offshore islands, exclusion fenced areas) or controlled to very low levels kereru populations have increased markedly.
Breeding
Kereru have been recorded breeding in all months, but most eggs are laid in September-April. Pigeons in native forest have been recorded not breeding when little or no fruit was available. The nest is a platform of dead twigs, and a single egg is laid. In general, females incubate from late afternoon until mid-morning, when the male takes over. The chick is brooded constantly until it is about 10 days old and well covered with feathers. From then until fledging at about 35-40 days of age, it is left alone by day, with the occasional brief visit by a parent to feed it. When fruit is readily available, pairs are able to have overlapping nesting attempts; a large chick in one nest and an egg being incubated in another. Pairs that have failed nesting attempts (due to predators, poor nest construction or a storm) often re-nest within a week or two.
Behaviour and ecology
During the non-breeding season, kereru can be fairly inconspicuous, feeding and then roosting under a thick canopy for sometimes hours at a time. In the breeding season, they can be just the opposite, perching on top of trees and males giving frequent display flights at the start of a nesting cycle. While not a territorial species, an individual will defend a food tree against other pigeons attempting to feed in it too. Fights involve hitting each other with their wings while flapping about in flight and moving only a metre or two.
While some individuals can spend weeks or months living within an area of a few hectares, such periods can be interspersed with long-distance flights to reach seasonal food sources. For example, one satellite-tagged Southland pigeon travelled at least 480 km during a 100-day period, involving four crossings of Foveaux Strait. A few tagged pigeons in Taranaki flew up to 60 km to reach autumn fruit sources. Thus the species is able to travel between suburbia, remnant forest patches, extensive tracts of native forest and other habitats in their quest for seasonally available foods. Combined with the kereru’s large size (and hence large mouth-width) and diet of fruit, these landscape-scale movements make kereru the most important vector for the transfer of seeds between widely-spaced fragments of native forest.
Food
Foods include buds, leaves, flowers and fruit from a wide variety species, both native and exotic. In addition, they have been seen feeding on the fruiting bodies of the parasitic strawberry fungus Cyttaria gunnii found in beech forest. While most foods are taken while clambering about on vines, shrubs and trees, at a few locations kereru spend time on the ground feeding on clover and possibly other herbs. While ripe fruit seems to be the preferred food, in most regions fruit is not available year round, and so kereru then feed on leaves. Important leaf sources include those of kowhai, tree lucerne, broom, willows, elms and poplars.
The grey warbler is New Zealand’s most widely distributed endemic bird species, based on the number of 10x10 km grid squares it occupied over the whole country in a 1999-2004 survey. It vies with rifleman for the title of New Zealand’s smallest bird, with both weighing about 6 grams. The title usually goes to rifleman, based on its shorter tail and therefore shorter body length.
The grey warbler is more often heard than seen, having a loud distinctive song, and tending to spend most of its time in dense vegetation. They are closely related to other members of the Gerygone genus, which are found throughout Australasia and South-East Asia, and include the other native warbler, the Chatham Island warbler.
Identification
The grey warbler is a tiny, slim grey songbird that usually stays among canopy foliage. It is olive-grey above, with a grey face and off-white underparts. The tail is darker grey, getting darker towards the tip, contrasting with white tips to the tail feathers, showing as a prominent white band in flight. The black bill is finely pointed, the eye is bright red, and the legs are black and very slender. Grey warblers often glean insects from the outside of the canopy while hovering, which no other New Zealand bird does, making them identifiable by behaviour from a long distance.
Voice: a characteristic long trilled song. The song is louder than expected, given the bird’s size. Only males sing, although females do give short chirp calls, usually as a contact call near the male. Nestlings and fledglings have a high pitched begging call. Begging calls are mimicked by their brood parasite, the shining cuckoo, while in the nest and as a dependent fledgling.
Similar species: silvereyes are slightly larger, greener above, with buff flanks and (in adults) a characteristic white-eye-ring. In flight, silvereyes have a plain dark tail without a white tip.
Distribution and habitat
The grey warbler is ubiquitous, occurring everywhere there are trees or shrubs on the three main islands, and on most offshore islands. It is one of the few native species to have maintained their distribution in almost all habitats following human colonisation, including rural and urban areas. They are typically found only in woody vegetation, in mid to high levels of the canopy, making them difficult to observe. Alpine tussock is one of the few vegetated habitats where you are unlikely to find grey warblers.
Population
Grey warblers are locally abundant in suitable habitats throughout New Zealand. There are no population estimates, but they are not considered to be under any threat.
Breeding
Grey warblers breed in spring and summer, typically from August to January, but can be as early as July and as late as February, with some variation by latitude. The nest is a hanging enclosed dome, usually found in the outer branches of the canopy, 2-4 m off the ground. Nests are usually placed in tree species with smaller leaves, such as manuka, kanuka and Coprosma spp. Birds in the north appear to raise one brood only per season, whereas those in the South Island are typically double-brooded. Females lay 3-5 eggs per clutch.
Grey warblers are the only mainland host for the brood parasitic shining cuckoo. The female shining cuckoo removes a single egg from the clutch, replacing it with her egg. No egg rejection behaviour is shown by the grey warbler. After hatching, the cuckoo chick ejects all grey warbler eggs and/or nestlings from the nest and is raised alone.
Behaviour and ecology
Grey warblers are often seen flying short distances, moving between branches in the canopy. They have a very fast wing beat, almost hovering at times while foraging. They usually associate as pairs, although there may be some distance between them. Contact is maintained with short chip calls. Pairs stay in their territories year round, although they are not defended during the non-breeding season. During the breeding season, the male sings frequently and actively defends his territory.
Food
Grey warblers are entirely insectivorous, feeding mainly on caterpillars, flies, beetles, moths and other small invertebrates. They are typically seen foraging on the bark of trunks and branches of trees, or hovering just outside the canopy while they glean insects from the outer leaves.
Tui are boisterous, medium-sized, common and widespread bird of forest and suburbia – unless you live in Canterbury. They look black from a distance, but in good light tui have a blue, green and bronze iridescent sheen, and distinctive white throat tufts (poi). They are usually very vocal, with a complicated mix of tuneful notes interspersed with coughs, grunts and wheezes. In flight, their bodies slant with the head higher than the tail, and their noisy whirring flight is interspersed with short glides.
Identification
Tui have almost-black heads, underparts, wings and tails that have an iridescent blue and green sheen, especially on the head and wings. The upper back and flanks are dark reddish brown with a bronze sheen, the nape and sides of the neck have filamentous white feathers, and there are two unusual curled white feather tufts on the throat (poi). Small white shoulder patches on the upperwing show prominently in flight, but are usually concealed when perched. The bill and feet are black, and the eye dark brown. The sexes are alike, but the male is larger. Adults have a notch on the 8th primary, and this feather quivers from the narrow part creating the whirring sound in flight. At first, juveniles have a browner body and lack the throat tuft, but after a few months they are only distinguishable in the hand from the lack of notch on the 8th primary.
Voice: a loud and complicated mix of tuneful notes interspersed with coughs, grunts and wheezes. In flight, tui maintain contact and harass raptors with a repetitive scream.
Similar species: male blackbirds are uniformly black, lack throat tufts, and have an orange bill. Bellbirds have very similar song, but this is more fluid, and lacks the loud coughs, grunts and wheezes of tui.
Distribution and habitat
Tui are widespread and locally abundant on the North, South and Stewart Islands, and their offshore islands; they are scarce only in drier, largely open country east of the Southern Alps. Tui are present on the Kermadec and Auckland Islands, and there is a larger subspecies endemic to the Chatham Islands. Tui are absent on the Poor Knights Islands probably due to the very high density of bellbirds there competing for a limited nectar resource. Tui are found in native forest and scrub (sometimes in exotic forests), and in rural gardens, stands of flowering kowhai and gums, and in suburban parks and gardens. There is much local movement, when tui follow a seasonal succession of flowering or fruiting plants. They usually nest in native forest and scrub, but will commute more than 10 km daily to feed on rich sources of nectar.
Population
Tui are locally abundant on the mainland and on some offshore islands, especially where there is a concentration of flowering plants or fruiting trees (e.g. flowering kowhai, fuchsia, flax, rata or gums; or fruiting kahikatea) and generally in higher numbers in areas where there has been pest (possum and predator) control. They are common on the Kermadec and Auckland Islands, but are scarce on the main Chatham Island (they are more common in the southern Chatham Islands).
Threats and conservation
Tui were the most common passerine found in Maori middens and were probably once an important source of protein. Despite the loss of the vast majority of lowland forest in New Zealand, tui have probably benefitted from the introduction to New Zealand of a variety of flowering and fruiting plants. These new species, as well as ‘out-of-range’ plantings of native species and sugar-water feeders in gardens, now provide tui with a reliable year-round supply of nectar and fruit. Tui respond extremely well to pest control programmes targeting possums, rats and mustelids, which are probably their main nest predators.
Recent attempts to reintroduce tui to Banks Peninsula, and Chatham Island tui to Chatham Island (from Rangatira Island), both in 2009-10, are showing encouraging signs of success.
Breeding
Eggs are laid from September to January. The nest, built by the female, is a rough bulky structure of twigs and sticks, lined with fine grasses, high in the canopy or subcanopy. The clutch is 2-4 white or pale pink eggs, marked with reddish-brown spots and blotches. Incubation and brooding is by the female only. Chicks are initially fed only by the female, but later the male helps to feed them.
Behaviour and ecology
Tui are notoriously aggressive, and will defend a flowering or fruiting tree, or a small part of a large tree, from all-comers, whether another tui or another bird species. They vigorously chase other birds away from their feeding territory with loud whirring wings. Tui have a display flight, in which they fly upwards above the canopy, and then make a noisy, near-vertical, dive back into the canopy. Tui play a very important role in the dynamics of New Zealand forests because they are one of the most common pollinators of flowering plants, and also disperse the seeds of trees with medium-sized fruits.
Food
Tui diet varies depending on the seasonal availability of nectar and fruits. Their preferred diet is nectar and honeydew, and they will often shift to, or commute daily or more frequently to, good nectar sources, such as stands of puriri, kowhai, fuchsia, rewarewa, flax, rata, pohutukawa, gums and banksias. In the breeding season, tui supplement their nectar diet with large invertebrates such as cicadas and stick insects obtained by hawking or by gleaning from the outside of trees. In the autumn, medium-sized fruit such as wineberry, kaikomako, mahoe, ngaio, rimu or kahikatea, make up much of the diet. In winter, flowering gums, banksias, puriri, and tree lucerne are important nectar sources, along with sugar-water feeders in gardens.
The rifleman is generally considered to be New Zealand’s smallest bird (the equally light-weight grey warbler has a longer tail). It is one of only two surviving species within the ancient endemic New Zealand wren family. Riflemen are small forest-dwelling insectivores, and are constantly on the move, producing a characteristic ‘wing-flicking’ while moving through the canopy and foraging up and down tree trunks. South Island riflemen are found throughout forests of the main divide, but are less common in the east of the South Island, and scarce on Stewart Island (apart from Codfish and Ulva Islands). The North Island rifleman survives as geographically isolated populations on North Island mountain ranges, with only three populations north of Kaimai Forest Park (Warawara Forest in Northland, and on Little Barrier and Tiritiri Matangi Islands).
Identification
Riflemen are sexually dimorphic. Males are smaller than females and have bright green on the head and back. Females are mainly yellow-brown with darker speckles on the head and back. Both sexes have pale grey under-parts. The black bill is slender, pointed, and angled slightly upwards. Riflemen are very small birds with short wings and a very short tail and forage predominantly within the canopy and on tree-trunks.
Voice: a short, simple, high frequency zip, pip or chuck produced by both sexes. The alarm call is a rapid high frequency decrescendo. Riflemen utter almost constant contact calls while foraging. Calls are produced at a high frequency often inaudible to people.
Similar species: rock wren (South Island alpine areas only) is larger, with longer legs and a stouter bill that is not upturned.
Distribution and habitat
Riflemen are found predominantly in mature forest, especially beech, kauri, kamahi and podocarp forest. They are now mainly confined to higher altitude forest throughout both the North and South Islands. Their distribution in the North Island is patchy, including throughout the eastern ranges south to the Rimutaka range and on the Central Plateau (including Pureora Forest Park and Tongariro National Park). Remnant populations are present in Warawara Forest (Northland), on Little Barrier Island and in Mount Egmont National Park. Riflemen are widespread throughout the west of the South Island, and also occur on Banks Peninsula and in the seaward Kaikoura ranges. They are scarce on Stewart Island, but common on Codfish Island. Riflemen have been translocated to Ulva Island, Dancing Star Preserve (Stewart Island), Cape Kidnappers, Tiritiri Matangi Island, and to A'Deane's Bush, Hawke's Bay.
Population
Riflemen occur at high densities throughout the eastern and southern ranges of the North Island (e.g. Urewera, Kaweka and Tararua ranges), and at lower densities in other remnant populations around the North Island. They are locally common in Nelson and in Marlborough and relatively widespread through the west of the South Island but in lower numbers in the east of the South Island.
Threats and conservation
Population declines and fragmentation of riflemen are considered likely to be related to habitat clearance initially, compounded by the impacts of introduced pest species, particularly stoats.
Breeding
Riflemen breed from August through to February. They build enclosed spherical nests within existing cavities. A diverse range of cavity types are used for nesting. Pairs can raise up to two broods per season, with more attempted if any nests fail. The male does most of the nest building, and both sexes contribute to incubation, nestling and fledgling care. Incubation of the 2-5 eggs takes about 20 days, and chicks leave the nest when about 24 days old. Riflemen breed in cooperative family groups in both sub-species, where related offspring of both sexes help to raise siblings from subsequent clutches. Helpers contribute to feeding of nestlings but not to incubation or nest-building. Help provided by related individuals results in increased juvenile recruitment at helped nests. Unrelated helpers may also assist with breeding and are thought to gain pairing opportunities from helping.
Behaviour and ecology
Riflemen are relatively poor flyers with limited dispersal capability. They typically move through the forest using short flights, mainly from canopy to canopy. The majority of time is spent foraging for small insects in the canopy or on tree trunks; in the absence of introduced predators, riflemen also forage on the ground. They use a variety of foraging behaviours including probing beneath bark on the trunks of trees, gleaning from leaves and branches, and are infrequently seen to aerial forage. Riflemen are a monogamous species with long-term pair-bonds, only replacing a mate if one of the pair dies. Mates forage in close proximity throughout the year, keeping in contact using frequent calls. Breeding appears to be initiated by male nest-building behaviour. Males contribute substantially to the parental effort including nuptial feeding, nest building, and a share of incubation, and nestling and fledgling care. Riflemen live in kin neighbourhoods and are often seen in cooperative groups which raise broods together. Loose territories are occupied but are rarely aggressively defended. Territory boundaries appear to be loosely defined with no vocal or behavioural advertisement of boundaries, and neighbour intrusions largely tolerated.
Food
Riflemen are exclusively insectivorous, feeding on a large variety of small invertebrates, particularly beetles, spiders and moth species (both adults and caterpillars).